The Linux Command Line 6: Redirection — Class Notes

2026-09-23 · class-notes, linux, bash, shell, redirection, pipelines, filters, command-line

Full class notes for TLCL chapter 6: standard input, output and error, redirecting and combining streams, /dev/null, group commands, pipelines and the filters uniq, wc, grep, head, tail and tee.

Class notes · Shotts, The Linux Command Line (2nd ed.) · Chapter 6

Quick reference: the short version of this chapter is the Linux chapter 6 sheet. It builds on chapter 5 Working with commands and is the foundation for everything in chapter 7 Expansion onwards — once you can redirect and pipe, small commands start combining into large ones.

Learning objectives

By the end of these notes you should be able to:

1. Describe the three standard streams and their file descriptor numbers.
2. Redirect standard output to a file, overwriting or appending, and explain what happens the moment the shell opens the file.
3. Redirect standard error separately, and combine both streams into one file with 2>&1 and &>.
4. Explain why > file 2>&1 and 2>&1 > file behave differently.
5. Discard unwanted output with /dev/null.
6. Redirect standard input from a file, and explain what cat - does.
7. Build pipelines and explain how they differ from redirection.
8. Use uniq, wc, grep, head, tail and tee as filters, and combine them.

1. Standard input, output and error

1.1 Three streams

Every program a shell starts is given three open channels, and they exist whether or not the program uses them:

The numbers matter because that is how you refer to a stream when redirecting: 2> means "redirect descriptor 2".

+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                                              |
|          keyboard                                              screen        |
|             |                                                    ^           |
|             | 0 stdin                               1 stdout    /            |
|             v                                                  /             |
|        +----------------------------------------+ -----------+               |
|        |              program                   |                            |
|        +----------------------------------------+ -----------\               |
|                                                   2 stderr     \             |
|                                                                 v            |
|                                                              screen          |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

1.2 Why they are separate

Because output and errors travel on different streams, you can send results to a file while errors still appear on your terminal — which is exactly what you want when a long job is running. The catch is that both default to the same place, so on screen they look identical and it is easy to forget the distinction until a redirection quietly leaves one behind.

Try it with a command that produces both. Asking ls for one file that exists and one that does not gives a result on stdout and a message on stderr:

ls -l /etc/hosts /etc/nope

Send stdout to a file and the error still reaches the screen:

ls -l /etc/hosts /etc/nope > out.txt

Exam tip: stdin is 0, stdout is 1, stderr is 2. > on its own always means 1>.

2. Redirecting standard output

2.1 Overwrite with >

The > operator sends standard output to a file instead of the screen:

ls -l /usr > ls-output.txt

Nothing appears on the terminal; the listing is in the file. Note what the shell does before the command even runs: it opens the target file for writing and truncates it to zero length. The file is emptied whether or not the command succeeds, and even if the command fails immediately.

That has a useful side effect. Redirecting a command that produces no output creates — or empties — a file:

> empty.txt

It also has a dangerous one: one stray > overwrites hours of work, with no confirmation and no undo.

Caution: > truncates first, then runs the command. sort file.txt > file.txt destroys the file before sort ever reads it.

In the real world: set -o noclobber (or set -C) makes bash refuse to overwrite an existing file with >, and >| overrides it for the one command where you mean it. Adding it to ~/.bashrc costs nothing and has saved a lot of files.

2.2 Append with >>

>> adds to the end of the file instead of truncating it, creating the file if it does not exist:

ls -l /usr >> ls-output.txt
ls -l /usr >> ls-output.txt

Run that twice and the file holds two copies of the listing. This is the operator for logs and for anything you are collecting over several commands.

+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                                              |
|   cmd > file        truncate to zero, then write    existing content lost    |
|   cmd >> file       open at the end, then write     existing content kept    |
|   > file            truncate (or create) with no command run at all          |
|                                                                              |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

2.3 Worked example — capture a listing and count it

Task: save a listing of /usr/bin and find out how many entries it has, without running ls twice.

1. Capture it. ls /usr/bin > bin-list.txt — the listing is now on disk instead of the screen.
2. Count it. wc -l < bin-list.txt returns the number of lines, one per entry.
3. Check the file is what you expect with head -n 5 bin-list.txt before you build anything else on it.

On a typical Ubuntu container, step 2 returns a number in the region of a thousand; the exact figure depends on what is installed, which is itself a reason to capture it rather than assume it.

3. Group commands

Sometimes you want several commands' output to land in one place. Wrapping them in braces makes the shell treat them as a single unit, so one redirection applies to all of them:

{ echo "== disk =="; df -h /; echo "== memory =="; free -h; } > report.txt

The syntax is fussy: a space after {, and every command inside terminated with ; (or a newline), including the last one before the closing }.

Parentheses do the same job but run the commands in a subshell — a separate child process — so anything they change, such as the working directory or a variable, is forgotten when the group ends:

(cd /var/log; ls) > logs.txt

After that command you are still in your original directory. With braces you would have moved.

Note (beyond this lesson): the subshell is why cd /tmp | cat seems to do nothing — each side of a pipeline also runs in its own subshell, so the directory change dies with it.

4. Redirecting standard error

Standard error has no shortcut of its own, so you redirect it by number:

ls -l /etc/nope 2> error.txt

The error message goes into the file and the terminal stays clean. 2>> appends, exactly as >> does for stdout.

This is how you separate the two kinds of output for a long-running job: results into one file, complaints into another.

find /etc -name "*.conf" > found.txt 2> denied.txt

Afterwards, found.txt holds the matches and denied.txt holds every "Permission denied" — a far more useful arrangement than having them interleaved on screen.

5. Redirecting standard output and standard error to one file

5.1 The traditional way: 2>&1

Sometimes you want everything in one file, in the order it happened. The traditional form redirects stdout to the file, then points stderr at wherever stdout is now going:

ls -l /usr /etc/nope > everything.txt 2>&1

Order is critical. The redirections are processed left to right:

• > file 2>&1 — stdout is pointed at the file, then stderr is pointed at the same place as stdout. Both end up in the file. Correct.
• 2>&1 > file — stderr is pointed at wherever stdout currently is (the screen), and only then is stdout moved to the file. The error still goes to the screen. Almost never what you want.

I ran both. The first put the error message in the file; the second left f2.txt empty and printed the error to the terminal.

+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                                              |
|   cmd > file 2>&1            step 1: 1 --> file                              |
|                              step 2: 2 --> wherever 1 is  = file   CORRECT   |
|                                                                              |
|   cmd 2>&1 > file            step 1: 2 --> wherever 1 is  = screen           |
|                              step 2: 1 --> file                    WRONG     |
|                                                                              |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

2>&1 is not a file called &1. The & is what tells the shell "the thing after this is a descriptor number, not a filename".

5.2 The modern way: &> and &>>

Recent versions of bash give a single operator for the same job:

ls -l /usr /etc/nope &> everything.txt
ls -l /usr /etc/nope &>> everything.txt

&> truncates and &>> appends, and both capture stdout and stderr together. It is shorter and there is no ordering trap.

Caution: &> is a bash feature. In a script whose first line is #!/bin/sh, the shell may be dash, where &> does not mean this at all — I ran exactly that mistake and the errors escaped to the terminal while the file stayed empty. For portable scripts, use > file 2>&1.

5.3 Worked example — a script that logs everything

Task: run a backup script unattended and keep a complete log, with errors in context.

1. Capture both streams in order: ./backup.sh > backup.log 2>&1. One file, interleaved as it happened, so an error appears next to the step that caused it.
2. Want to watch it as well? ./backup.sh 2>&1 | tee backup.log sends everything to the screen and the file at once (section 9.6).
3. Appending across nightly runs: ./backup.sh >> backup.log 2>&1, so each night adds to the log rather than erasing yesterday's.
4. Remember the order in steps 1 and 3 — 2>&1 must come after the file redirection.

6. Disposing of unwanted output

Some output you do not want at all. /dev/null is a special file — the "bit bucket" — that accepts anything written to it and discards it:

ls -l /etc/nope 2> /dev/null

The command runs, the error disappears, and the exit status still tells you whether it worked. I checked: after discarding the message that way, the exit status was still non-zero. That is the point — you are silencing the message, not the result.

Common forms:

In the real world: > /dev/null 2>&1 is everywhere in cron jobs, because anything a cron job prints gets emailed. Be careful: silence everything and a failing job fails invisibly. Log to a file instead, or at least keep stderr.

Note (beyond this lesson): /dev/null reads as an immediately empty file too, which is why cmd < /dev/null is a tidy way to guarantee a program gets no input and does not hang waiting for the keyboard.

7. Redirecting standard input

7.1 <

< replaces a program's standard input with the contents of a file:

sort < names.txt
wc -l < bin-list.txt

Many commands accept a filename as an argument anyway, so sort names.txt does the same thing. The difference shows in what the program knows: with <, the file is opened by the shell and the program simply reads its input, unaware there is a file at all. That is why wc -l < file prints only the count while wc -l file prints the count and the filename.

7.2 cat -

cat concatenates files and writes the result to standard output. With no arguments it reads standard input and echoes it, which is why a bare cat seems to hang: it is waiting for you to type, and stops at Ctrl-D (end of file).

A lone - as an argument means "read standard input here", letting you mix piped data with real files in any order:

echo "--- header ---" | cat - body.txt
cat header.txt - footer.txt

In the first, the piped text is placed before the file's contents; in the second, whatever arrives on stdin is inserted between the two files. I confirmed that printf "piped\n" | cat - writes the piped text straight through.

Note (beyond this lesson): the - convention is not cat's alone. Many tools — tar, diff, grep among them — accept - as "use standard input here" in place of a filename.

8. Pipelines

8.1 The pipe operator

A pipeline connects one command's standard output directly to the next command's standard input:

ls -l /usr/bin | less

No file is involved. Both commands run at the same time and data flows between them as it is produced, which is why you can page through the output of a command that is still running.

+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                                              |
|   Redirection:   [command] --stdout--> [ file on disk ]                      |
|                  one process, then the file sits there                       |
|                                                                              |
|   Pipeline:      [command A] --stdout--> --stdin--> [command B]              |
|                  both run at once, data flows through                        |
|                                                                              |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

8.2 The mistake everyone makes once

> expects a filename on the right; | expects a command. Writing ls > sort does not sort anything — it creates a file called sort in the current directory. You want ls | sort.

Pipelines chain as far as you like, each stage handing its output to the next:

ls /usr/bin | sort | uniq | wc -l

Only stdout travels down a pipe. Errors still go to the terminal unless you redirect them: cmd 2>&1 | less is how you page through a command's error messages as well as its output.

9. Filters

A filter is a program that reads standard input, transforms it, and writes standard output. Because they all share that shape, they slot together in any order.

9.1 sort and the input to uniq

sort puts lines in order, and is usually the first filter in a pipeline because the ones that follow expect sorted input.

9.2 uniq — report or omit repeated lines

uniq removes adjacent duplicate lines, which is why it almost always follows sort. Unsorted input with duplicates scattered through it leaves uniq with nothing to collapse.

I ran sort | uniq -c over the lines b a a c b b and got 2 a, 3 b, 1 c; uniq -d over the same input returned a and b.

The sort | uniq -c | sort -rn idiom — count occurrences, then sort by count, highest first — is one of the most useful things in this chapter and turns up constantly in log analysis.

9.3 wc — print line, word and byte counts

wc with no options prints three numbers: lines, words, bytes. Feeding it two lines totalling 19 bytes and four words returned exactly 2 4 19.

wc -l at the end of a pipeline answers "how many?" for almost anything: ls /usr/bin | wc -l returned 1,067 on this container.

9.4 grep — print lines matching a pattern

grep pattern file prints the lines that contain the pattern; in a pipeline, ... | grep pattern filters what flows through.

Over the lines apple, Banana, cherry, I confirmed that grep -i an returns Banana only, and grep -v a returns Banana and cherry — case matters to -v just as much.

Caution: always quote a pattern containing spaces or shell characters — grep "Failed password", grep '\.conf$'. Unquoted, the shell mangles it before grep ever sees it.

9.5 head and tail — print the first or last part of files

head prints the first 10 lines by default, tail the last 10; -n sets the number. Over seq 1 20, head -n 3 gave 1, 2, 3 and tail -n 3 gave 18, 19, 20.

tail -f is the special one: it prints the end of a file and then keeps watching, printing new lines as they are appended. It is how you watch a log live, and you leave it running until Ctrl-C.

9.6 tee — read from stdin, write to stdout and files

A pipeline is a single path: once data flows into the next command, it is gone. tee splits it, writing its input to one or more files and passing it along unchanged:

ls /usr/bin | tee bin-list.txt | wc -l

I ran that pattern over seq 1 20: wc -l reported 20 and the file held all twenty lines. Use tee -a to append instead of overwrite, and sudo tee when you need to write to a file your user cannot open but your pipeline is already running as you (echo "text" | sudo tee /etc/somefile).

+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                                              |
|   [command] --stdout--> [ tee ] --stdout--> [next command]                   |
|                            |                                                 |
|                            +--------------> [ file on disk ]                 |
|                                                                              |
|   The data reaches both places; nothing is consumed on the way.              |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

9.7 Worked example — the top talkers in a log

Task: from an SSH log, find which source addresses produced the most failed logins.

grep "Failed password" auth.log | grep -o "from [0-9.]*" |
  sort | uniq -c | sort -rn | head

Step by step:

1. grep "Failed password" keeps only the failure lines.
2. grep -o "from [0-9.]*" prints just the matching fragment rather than the whole line, so each line becomes a bare address.
3. sort groups identical addresses together, which is what the next stage needs.
4. uniq -c collapses each group into one line prefixed with its count.
5. sort -rn sorts numerically (-n), highest first (-r).
6. head shows the top ten.

Six small tools, each doing one thing, answering a question none of them was written for. That is the whole argument of this chapter.

10. Security perspective

Redirection and pipelines are how defenders read logs — and how attackers stay quiet.

• Silent failures hide incidents. > /dev/null 2>&1 on a cron job means a backup or a sync can fail nightly for months with nobody told. Log to a file with >> job.log 2>&1 and monitor the log, or keep stderr visible.
• Errors are evidence. Redirecting stderr away from a capture throws out "Permission denied" and "No such file" messages, which are exactly what tell you what an attacker probed and failed to reach. Capture both streams for anything forensic.
• > is destructive and silent. A mistyped redirect can truncate a log file, and from an incident response point of view a truncated log is indistinguishable from an attacker covering their tracks. noclobber, append-only attributes (chattr +a) and shipping logs off the host all protect against both cases.
• Never redirect secrets into files. command --password hunter2 > out.txt puts the secret in the shell history and the argument list (visible in ps), while the output file inherits your umask. Files written by redirection get default permissions, not restrictive ones.
• Sensitive output lands in world-readable places. dump > /tmp/data.txt is a classic: /tmp is readable by every user on the box. Set umask 077 first, or write somewhere with proper permissions.
• sudo tee is the right pattern — and a review point. echo x | sudo tee /etc/file works where sudo echo x > /etc/file fails, because the redirection happens as you, not as root. That also means any script doing this is writing to system files, which is worth noticing in a review.
• The triage pipeline. grep … | sort | uniq -c | sort -rn | head is the fastest way to turn a log into a ranked list — failed logins by source, most-requested URLs, most frequent error codes. Learn it once and use it on every incident.

Summary

• Every program has three streams: stdin (0), stdout (1) and stderr (2), all pointing at the terminal by default.
• > redirects stdout, truncating the target before the command runs; >> appends. A bare > file creates or empties a file.
• 2> and 2>> redirect stderr on its own, letting you split results and errors into separate files.
• Combine both with > file 2>&1 — in that order — or with bash's &> / &>>. 2>&1 > file leaves stderr on the screen.
• /dev/null discards anything written to it; the exit status still reports success or failure.
• < feeds a file into stdin. cat with no arguments reads stdin; cat - mixes stdin with named files.
• | connects one command's stdout to the next command's stdin, with both running at once and no file involved. Only stdout travels down a pipe.
• Filters read stdin and write stdout: sort, uniq (-c, -d, -u; needs sorted input), wc (-l, -w, -c), grep (-i, -v, -c, -n, -r), head / tail (-n, tail -f), and tee, which writes to a file and passes data on.

Glossary

Review questions

1. Name the three standard streams and their descriptor numbers.
2. What does the shell do to the target file before running ls > out.txt?
3. What is the difference between > and >>?
4. How do you redirect only error messages to a file?
5. Why does > file 2>&1 work while 2>&1 > file does not?
6. What is &> short for, and why avoid it in a #!/bin/sh script?
7. What is /dev/null, and does redirecting to it change a command's exit status?
8. Why does wc -l < file print a different thing from wc -l file?
9. What does a lone - mean as an argument to cat?
10. What is the difference between cmd > file and cmd | other?
11. Why does uniq almost always follow sort?
12. What does tee do that a plain redirection cannot?
13. Scenario: a nightly cron job ends in > /dev/null 2>&1 and nobody noticed it failing for weeks. What should it say instead?
14. Scenario: you want to watch a slow script's progress on screen and keep a complete log of output and errors. What do you run?
15. Scenario: from access.log, produce the ten busiest client IP addresses, most frequent first. Sketch the pipeline.
16. Scenario: sort data.txt > data.txt has just emptied the file. Explain why, and give a safe alternative.

Answer key

1. Standard input (0), standard output (1), standard error (2).
2. It opens the file and truncates it to zero length — before the command runs, and regardless of whether the command succeeds.
3. > overwrites (truncates first); >> appends to the end, creating the file if needed.
4. cmd 2> file (or 2>> to append), redirecting descriptor 2 by number.
5. Redirections are applied left to right. In the first, stdout goes to the file and then stderr is pointed at the same place. In the second, stderr is pointed at the screen — where stdout still is — before stdout is moved.
6. Shorthand for redirecting stdout and stderr to the same file. It is a bash feature; /bin/sh may be dash, where it does not work, so use > file 2>&1 for portability.
7. A special file that discards everything written to it. No — the exit status is unaffected; you silence the message, not the result.
8. With < the shell opens the file and wc just reads input, so it prints only the count. Given a filename, wc also prints the name.
9. "Read standard input at this point," letting piped data be mixed with named files.
10. > writes to a file, which sits on disk; | sends stdout straight into another command's stdin, with both running simultaneously and no file involved.
11. uniq only collapses adjacent duplicate lines, so the input must be sorted for duplicates to be next to each other.
12. It writes its input to a file and passes it on down the pipeline at the same time, so data reaches both places.
13. >> job.log 2>&1, with the log monitored — keep the output rather than discarding failures into silence.
14. ./script.sh 2>&1 | tee run.log — merge stderr into stdout, then split the stream to the screen and the file.
15. grep … access.log | <extract the IP> | sort | uniq -c | sort -rn | head — group identical addresses, count each group, sort numerically in reverse, take the top ten.
16. > truncates data.txt before sort opens it, so sort reads an empty file. Use a temporary file (sort data.txt > tmp && mv tmp data.txt) or sort -o data.txt data.txt, which is written to handle this case.